Discussion On Classical Conditioning As An Explanation Of Learning Ess

Discussion On Classical Conditioning As An Explanation Of Learning We use the term classical conditioning to describe one type of associative learning in which there is no contingency between response and reinforcer. This situation resembles most closely the experiment from Pavlov in the 1920s, where he trained his dogs to associate a bell ring with a food-reward. In such experiments, the subject initially shows weak or no response to a conditioned stimulus (CS, e.g. the bell), but a measurable unconditioned response (UCR, e.g. saliva production) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, e.g. food). In the course of the training, the CS is repeatedly presented together with the UCS; eventually the subject forms an association between the US and the CS. In a subsequent test-phase, the subject will show the conditioned response (CR, e.g. saliva production) to the CS alone, if such an association has been established and memorized. Such Pavlovian conditioning is opposed to instrumental or operant, where producing a CR controls the UCS presentations. Therefore, classical conditioning involves learning by association - where you simply learn by associating two events that often occur together. Conditioning, in general occurs more rapidly when the conditioned stimulus in unfamiliar rather than familiar. High order conditioning is when a CS can be used to produce a response from another neutral stimulus (can evoke CS). There are a couple of different orders or levels. Taking Pavlovs dogs as an example, where light is paired with food. The food is a US since it produces a response without any prior learning. Then, when food is paired with a neutral stimulus (light) it becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - the dog begins to respond (salivate) to the light without the presentation of the food. One of the principles of classical conditioning is extinction. If a CS is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the CR will disappear. In Pavlovs case, if a dog learns to associate the sound of a bell with food and then the bell is rung repeatedly but no food appears, the dog will soon stop salivating to the bell. Another principle to classical conditioning is the spontaneous recovery. Supposing that a response is classically conditioned then extinguished. If a few hours or days later, the CS is presented again, the CR will probably reappear. As spontaneous recovery is a term used for this temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay. Thus, the elimination of a conditioned response usually requires more than one extinction lesson. Pavlovs dog who was conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell of one tone may well salivate to a similar sounding bell or a buzzer. Stimulus generalisation is the extension of the conditioned response from the original stimulus to a similar stimuli. The conditioned response to a similar stimulus is not as strong as the response to the original stimulus; the less similar the weaker the response. An animal or person can be taught to choose between stimuli, that is to discriminate stimuli. For example, is a dog is shown a red circle everytime he is fed, then he will salivate at the sight of the red circle alone. However, the dog will usually generalise this response to that they may respond to circles of other colours. If we only feed the dog when it sees a red circle but not an orange one, then it will soon learn to respond to red but not orange. The dog would have learnt to discriminate between the two colours. Relating this to humans, we discriminate consistently, relying on everyday life. Such as knowing someones voice. John Watson and Rayner conditioned a baby (Albert) to be afraid of a white rabbit by showing Albert the rabbit and then slamming two metal pipes together behind Albert's head. The pipes produced a very loud, sudden noise that frightened Albert and made him cry. Watson did this several times (multiple trials) until Albert was afraid of the rabbit. Previously he would pet the rabbit and play with it. After conditioning, the sight of the rabbit made Albert scream -- then what Watson found was that Albert began to show similar terrified behaviours to Watson's face. What Watson realized was that Albert was responding to the white beard

Funny Quotes of Wit and Wisdom

Funny Quotes of Wit and Wisdom These funny quotes also shed light on more than a little bit of the truth in the form of witty wisdom. Famous writers  and philosophers often express lifes irony wrapped up as comedy and humor helps to drive the point home. Wit and Wisdom Quotes If you read a lot of books, youre considered well-read. But if you watch a lot of TV, youre not considered well-viewed. -Lily TomlinAdvice is what we ask for when we already know the answer but wish we didnt. -Erica JongBefore you criticize someone, you should walk a mile in their shoes. That way when you criticize them, you are a mile away from them and you have their shoes. -Jack HandeyI know that there are people who do not love their fellow man, and I hate people like that! -Tom LehrerClothes make the man. Naked people have little or no influence on society. -Mark TwainA synonym is a word you use when you cant spell the word you first thought of. -Burt BacharachA signature always reveals a mans character- and sometimes even his name. -Evan EsarIf you cannot answer a mans argument, all it not lost; you can still call him vile names. -Elbert HubbardHe who believes that the past cannot be changed has not yet written his memoirs. -Torvald GahlinI guess a drag queen’s like an o il painting: You gotta stand back from it to get the full effect. -Harvey Fierstein Jealousy is all the fun you think they had. -Erica JongIf were not supposed to eat animals, how come theyre made out of meat? -Tom SnyderIf you dont know where you are going, you will wind up somewhere else! -Yogi BerraInstead of holding on to the Biblical view that we are made in the image of God, we come to realize that we are made in the image of the monkey. -Lin YutangIn spite of the cost of living, its still popular. -Kathleen NorrisI think of myself as an intelligent, sensitive human being with the soul of a clown, which always forces me to blow it at the most important moments. -Jim MorrisonPeople are too durable, thats their main trouble. They can do too much to themselves, they last too long. -Bertolt BrechtDon’t look back, something might be gaining on you. -Satchel PaigeIn my day, we couldn’t afford shoes, so we went barefoot. In the winter we had to wrap our feet with barbed wire for traction. -Bill Flavinï » ¿If the English language made any sense, lackada isical would have something to do with a shortage of flowers. -Doug Larson

The Brain All You AreIs Here Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Brain All You AreIs Here - Essay Example The hippocampus stores our long-term memories, and emotions are believed to be stored in the amygdala. The prefrontal cortex controls our judgments and helps moderate our behavior and rein in our impulses. It is also the region associated with future planning. As our judgment power has not reached maturity throughout puberty and in our early adulthood, we do not know how to control our impulses, therefore, our decision making is quite faulty, based on bad judgment. Talent and creativity also depend on our brain’s activity. The frontal lobe gives us the ability or talent, the temporal lobes and limbic system give us determination and incentive to express it. If the latter part of our brain is impaired, the former is bound to be affected adversely. Temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with symptoms of manic depression and mania. A study done on Buddhist monks showed that meditation can help alter our brain activity by causing more activity to occur in the left prefrontal cortex. The study also showed that meditating subjects showed a better immune response to flu shots than others. The brain continues to adapt and change throughout our adulthood. The brain has been shown to adapt to injury, molding itself to compensate for the damaged area of the brain. The hippocampus and grey matter have been also been found to grow and increase in size in response to our activities. Basic emotions can be recognized by the brain regardless of cultural differences, as was shown by a study done by Paul Ekman (in Shreeve 2005). The amygdala in our brain receives the sensory responses from environments that trigger fear responses and reaction to dangers, which, in turn, processes the stimuli, setting the less urgent information aside. Sometimes the basic emotional responses are based on our â€Å"nurture†, these can be unlearned; however, responses like turning our heads suddenly when we feel something moving on our side,

Leadership in the United States Army Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership in the United States Army - Assignment Example This principle of leadership is developed by the use of leadership traits, for example as an army leader in the United States, one must know the strength and weakness which one possesses. Experience and knowledge must be considered since one is going to work with groups and one must know the best way to deal with any given situation. Before one can lead, one must be able to do the job of military and again demonstrate the ability to accomplish the mission and demonstrate competence in any mission that is given to him or her. In the United States as an army leader, one must seek well rounded military education or even carry research so as to be technically and tactically proficient (Howell, 2012). Again one must seek guidance from capable leaders who have been in a position to lead and associating with other units of security and knowing their tactics so as to improve leadership skills. As an army leader who has undergone promotion by ranks, one must set the standards by personal example. All the military men who are under the leadership must do what is said and not as what one wants. The appearance, attitude, physical fitness and personal example are the key areas that those who are under the leaders look and therefore as a leader one must observe them properly. This principle is commonly used where a command is to be dictated for example in the case of United States army where the commander must command and communicate in a clear and concise manner (Johnson, 2009). Supervision must be highly looked upon and certainly made that the mission is understood by everyone in the group and questions are given time to be clarified and advice given. As an army commander in United States teamwork always leads to the achievement of the goals and thus being encouraged with perfection.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 6

Marketing - Essay Example The financial services sector would include banking, life assurance and pensions, investment management and asset servicing apart from general insurance, corporate finance, and broking services sectors. The factors that affect the financial services industry are the government regulation and deregulation from time to time, global competition, changing customer preference behavior. Availability of skilled staff is essential. Marketing financial services, irrespective whether it is face-to-face or through direct marketing channels, comes with a high cost. If human element is eliminated, the electronic set up costs is high. Marketing of services is a bigger challenge than marketing of products. Various reasons account for this and hence strategic marketing plans have to be devised for this. The most important differentiation is that products have well defined parameters and the customer can base his decision to some extent on that. Services on the other hand are intangible. In services marketing, it depends to a large extent on the customer. Two different people would react differently to a given situation. Marketing a product is on the premise that there is a market of millions. Hence, all related services like delivery, demonstration and after sales service can be built accordingly. As far as marketing financial services is concerned, each individual is a market in himself. Customer relationship management is essential here. Transactional analysis is important because it helps to derive customer knowledge to offer and improve the services. The service staff can also be trained based on this informati on. In marketing financial services, various factors have to be taken into account. Financial services come with a high element of risk attached to it. Marketing of products and general services require the four P’s (product, price, place and promotion) but in marketing of financial services two

Work is one of the main ways individuals participate

Work is one of the main ways individuals participate Work is one of the main ways individuals participate in society and the workplace will be one of the principal communities to which a worker belongs. Judicial recognition of this has been slow to emerge. Traditionally the courts have focused very strongly on the employee's financial interest in the relationship. By so doing they tended to ignore the fact that what workers gain from employment is not merely wages. For instance, 'A person's employment is an essential component of his or her sense of identity, self-worth and emotional well-being[1].† Therefore this assignment will consider whether or not the duty of trust and confidence should be implied into every employment contract on policy grounds. This will be achieved by a detailed discussion of the position of mutual trust and confidence, including its development into the employment relationship. It will consider in detail the judicial position of mutual trust and confidence, it will be argued that this has become synonymous with the duty of trust and confidence, and the rationale for its inclusion can be seen as that of public policy. It is well known that an employer is subject to certain implied duties. One of the most important of these duties is the implied term of mutual trust and confidence, which as Cabrelli[2] points out â€Å"which from the perspective of the obligations imposed upon the employer, has been expressed as a duty upon the employer not, without reasonable and proper cause, to act in such a way as would be calculated or likely to destroy or seriously damage the relationship of trust and confidence existing between the employer and its employees[3]† The breadth of the definition of the implied duty of trust and confidence has spawned much litigation in recent years. This implied term has also generated a great deal of academic attention, having been described as assuming a 'central position in the law of the contract of employment[4]', as being 'undoubtedly the most powerful engine of movement in the modern law of employment contracts[5]' and as forming the 'cornerstone of the legal construction of the contract of employment[6]'. There is a view that the implied term of trust and confidence may evolve to engulf the more 'traditional' implied terms and this has been well expressed in academic circles. For instance, Freedland points out that: â€Å"Almost any particular implied term of the contract of employment could in theory be placed under [the] umbrella [of the general obligation of mutual trust and confidence]; it remains to be seen how far this framework approach will lead to the swallowing up of existing, hitherto distinct, implied terms[7]†. Whilst there have been a number of notable recent common law developments, the most significant may well be the emergence of mutual trust and confidence. This is in part because '[T]he open-textured nature of the term makes it an ideal conduit through which the courts can channel their views as to how the employment relationship should operate[8].' For instance, Hepple suggests, with reference to the ECHR, that 'since the court must act compatibly with convention rights, the duty of trust and confidence also embodies a duty to respect the convention rights of an employee[9]'. Another reason is the wide-range of situations which have been held to fall within the ambit of the term[10]. Moreover, it may be that in time, 'the obligation will come to be seen as the core common law duty which dictates how employees should be treated during the course of the employment relationship[11]'. Trust and confidence' is used to refer to a type of fiduciary relationship the key element of which is the duty to act in the interest of another. In employment law, however, trust and confidence has a different meaning. It refers to an obligation implied into all employment contracts, which requires the parties not to conduct themselves in a way which is likely or calculated to destroy the relationship of trust and confidence between them. As an implied term it is subject to the usual rules of implication, including the possibility that the parties may be able to exclude its application[12]. Furthermore, the implied obligation of trust and confidence is mutual, in that both employer and employee must maintain a good working relationship. Fiduciary duties, on the other hand, are not mutual; they are always owed by one person to another. The notion of trust and confidence developed out of the well-established requirement of co-operation. Despite its name, this duty was traditionally imposed on employees only, most notably in the form of the obligations of obedience and faithful service[13]. In the mid to late 1970s the courts began to reverse the duty of co-operation and to impose new obligations on employers. At first this occurred in cases where there was a particular relationship between the parties[14] or where the conduct of the employer was particularly serious[15]. A general principle was formulated in Wood v Freeloader[16], where the chairman of the tribunal held that 'there is an implied duty of co-operation between employer and employee and in particular a duty implied by law that an employer will not do anything which would undermine the continuation of the confidential relationship between employer and employee'. The present formulation of the implied term was finally put forward in the case of Courtaulds Northern Textiles Ltd v Andrew[17], and was accepted by the Court of Appeal in Lewis v Motorworld Garages Ltd[18] and by the House of Lords in Malik v BCCI[19]. It has, therefore, been argued that the concept of trust and confidence was developed in employment law through the adaptation of an existing contractual concept, without reference to fiduciary duties. In recent years both courts and academics have recognised that employment is in many respects not comparable to a straightforward exchange-based contract, and that therefore a significant degree of co-operation is required of both parties. However, contract remains at the heart of the employment relationship, and in classic contract law, the parties are only obliged to co-operate to the extent that is necessary to make performance of the agreement possible[20]. In the context of employment this means that each party must have regard to the interests of the other, but, as Elias J rightly emphasised in Fishel, they need not put those interests ahead of their own. In his paper 'Beyond Exchange: The New Contract of Employment[21]' Brodie raises the question as to 'whether the law of the employment contract as a whole will continue to evolve so that the contract could be categorised as one of good faith. To put it another way, will the contract become one of good faith rather than merely a contract which contains elements of good faith'. This recognition of the implied term's potential for further development is to be welcomed. Linda Clarke has also formulated an argument for a changed perception of the employment relationship, on the basis of the implied term: 'by recognising the employment relationship as a fiduciary one, it will be easier to argue for the extension of the implied term of mutual trust and confidence to cover positive duties to give employees information'. It is certainly true that the employee in University of Nottingham v Eyett[22] would have been better off, had his employer been under a duty to volunteer information. However, this result can be achieved without turning employment into a fiduciary relationship. There is no reason why the implied obligation to maintain trust and confidence should not be used to impose positive duties on both employers and employees. If used to its full potential, it can provide an adequate degree of employee protection. Regarding employment as fiduciary in nature would, instead of advancing employee rights, carry serious negative connotations f or employee autonomy, by exposing employees to a corresponding duty to provide information. The case of Visa International Service Association v Paul[23] is a case which is worthy of consideration here. In this case it was held that an employer breached the implied duty of trust and confidence where they failed to inform an employee of the emergence of a post for which she considered herself suitable. Indeed, it provides support for the emergence of an overarching and distinct concept of trust and confidence since it suggests that an employee can be successful if they raise a claim for recovery of economic loss for a failure of the employer to inform based on a repudiatory breach of the duty of trust and confidence[24]. One view of the result in Visa International is that it conceptualises the duty of trust and confidence as an overarching premise distinct from the other 'traditional' implied duties. An important issue which the courts and tribunals have had to consider is the import of an express term in a contract of employment which is, on the face of it, incompatible with an implied term. The question here is whether the latter is sufficient to disapply the former or vice versa-in other words, what happens in the case of a 'clash of contractual terms'? Johnstone is the most important case in this area and deals with this issue. In Johnstone, the written contract of employment stated that a junior doctor was under a duty to work 40 hours a week and that the employer had the discretion to compel the employee to work for a further 48 hours per week. What is noteworthy is that there was no express waiver of the implied duty to exercise reasonable care. Instead, the question was whether the express terms on working hours were disapplied by the implied duty to exercise reasonable care. In Johnstone[25], the judges in the Court of Appeal were divided on how to deal with the incompatibility issue. To summarise, in his dissenting judgement, Leggatt LJ held that an implied term could not supersede an express term. Conversely, Stuart-Smith LJ held that an express term could be disapplied by an implied term where the two conflicted and the implied term ought to prevail based on 'principle'. Browne-Wilkinson V-C held that the implied term must coexist with the express term without conflict. The 'Browne-Wilkinson' approach can be reformulated in two ways: First, as another way of saying that an implied term cannot supersede an express term; or, alternatively, as holding that the scope of the employer's implied duties required to be carved with reference to the express terms of the contract. The question is whether the analysis in Johnstone translates to the implied duty of trust and confidence. The answer would appear to be that the effect of the incompatibility problem is resolved in the same way, regardless of the type of implied duty. Second, and shifting the focus from the generic employment contract to the implied duty of trust and confidence itself, the courts have indicated obiter that they will uphold exercises in contracting out of the implied duty. In Malik, Lord Steyn stated that the implied term of mutual trust and confidence operated as a default rule, and that the parties were free to exclude it or modify it[26]. This analysis is entirely consistent with the decision of the House of Lords in Johnson v Unisys Ltd[27]. Of course, there are limits to the doctrine of contracting out. For example, the argument in Horkulak v Cantor Fitzgerald International[28] that the size of an employee's remuneration and benefits package written into their contract of em ployment justified the disapplication of the duty of trust and confidence was not upheld. However, what we do have is an indication by the House of Lords that the implied duty is a default rule and as such susceptible to exclusion, modification or limitation. For this reason, the writer would submit that based on the conceptual underpinning of UCTA and the dicta of Lord Steyn in the House of Lords on a balanced view, contracting out of the implied duty of trust and confidence is possible. There is a view that the mutual duty of trust and confidence is unavailable in a positive sense to compel the employer to take action or enjoin conduct. Instead, it is said that its main purpose is to prohibit conduct damaging to the employment relationship. The argument holds that one means of distinguishing between the two implied duties is by invoking the positive/negative dichotomy. However, it is submitted that the assertion that the duty of trust and confidence only applies in a negative context, i.e. to hold that the conduct of the employer amounted to a repudiatory breach of contract is incorrect. There are many cases which demonstrate that omissions by an employer will also be sufficient to amount to a repudiatory breach of the duty of trust and confidence. For example, in Reed v Stedman[29], the employer's failure to investigate an employee's complaints (to colleagues) of sexual harassment was enough to justify a finding of breach of trust and confidence. On the basis of the above cases[30], it would appear that the positive/negative conduct dichotomy cannot be used as a means of denying evidence for the evolution of an abstractual, all-embracing concept of mutual trust and confidence which is equivalent to the sum of its parts. An analysis of the law in this area and of academic opinion, demonstrates quite clearly the need for the duty of trust and confidence, it is difficult to see how an employment contract can succeed without such an implicit duty. This is a basic duty which in its simplest form requires the employer to respect the worker and for the worker to respect his employee, it is difficult to see how an employment relationship could be successful without this basic requirement, despite judicial opinion to the contrary. Therefore it must be concluded, that currently all successful employment relationships require this basic duty to succeed, and in response to the question posed public policy does require that such a duty be imposed into every successful employment contract. This would not only regulate the employment relationship but it would ensure that it was a happy and successful relationship, one that benefited society. Bibliography Cases Croft v Consignia plc [2002] IRLR 851 Courtaulds Northern Textiles Ltd v Andrew [1979] IRLR 84 Fyfe McGrouther v Byrne [1977] IRLR 29 Isle of Wight Tourist Board v Coombes [1976] IRLR 413 Johnson v Unisys Limited [2001] IRLR 279 Johnstone v Bloomsbury Area Health Authority [1991] IRLR 118 Lewis v Motorworld Garages Ltd [1984] IRLR 465 Malik v BCCI [1997] IRLR 462 Nottingham v Eyett [1999] IRLR 87 Re Public Service Employee Relations Act [1987] 1 SCR Reed v Stedman [1999] IRLR 299 TSB Bank v Harris [2000] IRLR 157 Visa International Service Association v Paul [2004] IRLR 42 Wood v Freeloader [1977] IRLR 455 Waltons v Morse Dorrington [1997] IRLR 488 Journal Articles Brodie D, (1998) â€Å"Beyond Exchange: The New Contract of Employment† 27 Industrial Law Journal 79 Burrows,(1968) â€Å"Contractual Co-operation and the Implied Term† 31 Modern Law Review 390 Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal 121 Collins H,(2003)†Employment Law†, Oxford: Oxford University Press Collins H,(2003)†Employment Law†, Oxford: Oxford University Press Books Bowers J Honeyball S, (2002) â€Å"Bowers and Honeyball Textbook on L Labour Law†, Oxford University Press Cabrelli D, (2005) â€Å"The Implied Term of Mutual Trust and Confidence: An Emerging Overarching Principle?† Industrial Law Journal 34 (284) Deakin s Morris G, (2003) â€Å"Labour Law†, Third Edition, Lexis Nexis Dudington J, (2003) â€Å"Employment Law†, Pearson Higher Education Freedland M,(2003) â€Å"The Personal Employment Contract† Oxford: Oxford University Press Lewis D Sargeant M, (2005) â€Å"Employment Law† , Pearson Higher Education Press Willey B, (2003) â€Å"Employment Law in Context†, Pearson Professional Education 1 Footnotes [1] Re Public Service Employee Relations Act [1987] 1 SCR 313 at 368, per Dickson CJ J [2] Cabrelli D, (2005) â€Å"The Implied Term of Mutual Trust and Confidence: An Emerging Overarching Principle?† Industrial Law Journal 34 (284) [3] Malik v BCCI [1998] AC 20, 35 per Lord Nicholls and 45 per Lord Steyn adopting the wording of Browne-Wilkinson J in Woods v WM Car Services (Peterborough) Ltd [1981] ICR 666, 670 [4] Brodie D,(2001) â€Å"Mutual Trust and the Values of the Employment Contract†30 Industrial Law Journal 84 [5] Freedland M,(2003) â€Å"The Personal Employment Contract† Oxford: Oxford University Press [6]Collins H,(2003)†Employment Law†, Oxford: Oxford University Press, [7] Freedland M,(2003) â€Å"The Personal Employment Contract† Oxford: Oxford University Press at page 159 [8] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal 121 at 126 [9] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal [10] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal [11] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal [12] See Malik v BCCI [1997] IRLR 462; Johnstone v Bloomsbury Area Health Authority [1991] IRLR 118 [13] see, for example, Secretary of State for Employment v Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen (No 2) [1972] 2 QB 455 [14] Isle of Wight Tourist Board v Coombes [1976] IRLR 413 [15] Fyfe McGrouther v Byrne [1977] IRLR 29 [16] [1977] IRLR 455 [17] [1979] IRLR 84 [18] [1984] IRLR 465 [19] [1997] IRLR 462 [20] Burrows,(1968) â€Å"Contractual Co-operation and the Implied Term† 31 Modern Law Review 390 [21] Brodie D, (1998) â€Å"Beyond Exchange: The New Contract of Employment† 27 Industrial Law Journal 79 [22] [1999] IRLR 87 [23] [2004] IRLR 42 [24] Cabrelli D, (2005) â€Å"The Implied Term of Mutual Trust and Confidence: An Emerging Overarching Principle?† Industrial Law Journal 34 (284) [25] Johnson v Unisys Limited [2001] IRLR 279 [26] Malik v BCCI [1998] AC 20 [27]Johnson v Unisys Limited [2001] IRLR 279 [28] [2003] IRLR 756 [29] [1999] IRLR 299 [30] There are other cases where the failure of the employer to take positive action was held to amount to a breach of trust and confidence, see e.g. TSB Bank v Harris [2000] IRLR 157 and Waltons v Morse Dorrington [1997] IRLR 488. See also Lindsay P in Croft v Consignia plc [2002] IRLR 851, 859

The Battle of Vicksburg :: American America History

The Battle of Vicksburg The Civil War split our nation, Americans fighting Americans, brother against brother. The war lasted four long years, a key battle fought westward was the turning point in the war: the Battle of Vicksburg. Between Cairo, Illinois, and the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi River twists and winds for nearly 1,000 miles. Commonly referred to as 'the trunk of the American tree'. The river was vital to both the American Government and to the Confederate forces in the west. The city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, 250 feet high, overlooks the Mississippi River on the Louisiana-Mississippi state border. Confederate forces mounted artillery batteries ready to challenge the passage of Union ships. Receiving control of Vicksburg and the Mississippi River was a huge benefit in the war. Due to the Geographic location made it ideal for defense. Before the outbreak of the Civil War, Vicksburg, Mississippi had become one of the most prosperous and sophisticated towns on the old southern frontier. The city was a booming center of trade, its wharves crowded with boats carrying all manner of goods and commodities. It boasted a municipal orchestra, a Shakespeare repertory company, and an imposing courthouse in the Greek revival style. To its proud citizens, Vicksburg was the "Queen City of the Bluff" and a center, as one of them wrote, of "culture, education and luxury." All this was to change with coming of the war. By early 1862 the peaceful town had become one of the most strategically important spots in the entire Confederacy- and would soon be one of the most bitterly fought over. From the beginning of the war in 1861, to protect their most prized possession, the Confederacy put up fortifications at strategic points along the river. Federal forces eventually captured post after post. After fighting their way southward from Illinois and northward from the Gulf of Mexico. Until by late summer of 1862, only Vicksburg and Port Hudson appeared to be major constraints to the Union. Of the two posts, Vicksburg was by far the strongest and most important. Setting high over looking a bend in the river, protected by artillery and dangerous swamps. So far the city had defied Union efforts to force it into submission. In order to protect the Mississippi Valley, Confederates established a line of defense, which ran from Columbus, Kentucky, overlooking the Mississippi River trough Bowling Green to Cumberland Gap where the bright flank was secure on the mountains.

Planning Process in India Essay

Process of planning in India takes place in three steps-formulating the plan, its implementation and the evaluation. Over the years and due to the political pressures two new aspects have been added to the process, namely decentralization and popular participation. 1) Plan Formulation The process of plan formulation takes place in a series of steps. The first step in the process of formulating the plan is for the Commission to prepare, on a rough basis, certain schemes and projects in consultation with the union ministries and state governments in the background the Perspective Plan; to determine some kind of priority; to take stock of the available resources; and to distribute these resources among the different agencies on an approximate basis. These estimates and projections are the placed before the National Development Council (NDC) and the schemes are modifies in the light of discussions. These are then sent to the various union ministries and state governments in the form of preliminary instructions. Then begins the second stage where each union ministry and state government preparing its own plan. The machinery for planning is fairly well developed at the state level. After the states and the union ministries have submitted their plans to the commission, there begins the process of dovetailing the various schemes and programmes into an integrated plan. In this task the Commission consults representatives of different groups in the Indian Parliament. At the end of these exercises the draft plan is published and thrown open for discussion. The universities, the press, political parties, chambers of commerce and industry, trade organization and other groups and individuals are free to give their comments on the draft. The next stage is the period of prolonged detailed discussion between the commission and the representatives of different state governments and the central government as a result of which the agreements as to the size and nature of state plans are reached. These tentative agreements are the placed before the cabinet and after its approval sent to the NDC and after the council’s recommendations are given the final shape. The plan is the presented to the Parliament and after its approval it is published. 2) Plan Implementation It should be noted here that the Commission is an advisory body and has no executive functions. It is only a national organ for plan formulation and a staff body to advise the cabinet. The task of implementation is left to the union ministries and state governments. It is in this field that efforts have been made to introduce the two concepts of democratic decentralization and the popular participation, particularly after the introduction of the Panchayati Raj in the country. 3) Plan Evaluation  Evaluation is the last of the three stages in the process. One of the functions of the Commission is to appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the plan and make recommendations for necessary adjustment. The Commission makes such appraisal through: 1) Monthly reports of selected projects, quarterly reviews of the working of the plan and the annual progress reports obtained from the union ministries and the state governments. 2) The advisors who visit the states within their charge and study at first had the working of the development programmes; and 3) Through the machinery of the Committee on Plan Projects. In addition, there is the Programme Evaluation Organization set up 1952. The Programme Evalution Organization (PEO) undertakes evaluation of selected programmes/schemes under implementation, as per the requirement of the various Divisions of Planning Commission and Ministries/Departments of Governments of India. The evaluation studies are designed to assess the performance, process of implementation, effectiveness of the delivery systems and impact of programmes. The Programmed Evaluation Organisation which functions as and independent unit of the Commission.

The 1920 Wall Street Bombing

The 1920 Wall Street Bombing At noon on September 16, 1920, a horse drawn buggy loaded with 100 pounds of dynamite and 500 pounds of cast- iron slugs exploded across the street from the J.P. Morgan bank headquarters in downtown Manhattan, New York. The explosion blew out windows for blocks around, killed 30 immediately, injured hundreds of others and completely destroyed the interior of the Morgan building.. Those responsible were never found, but evidence- in the form of a warning note received at a nearby office building- suggested anarchists. Tactic / Type: VBIED / Anarchist Learn more: VBIEDs (vehicle borne improvised explosive devices | Anarchism and Anarchist terrorism Where: Financial District, downtown Manhattan, New York When: September 16, 1920 The Story: Shortly after 12pm on September 16, a dynamite loaded horse drawn cart exploded on the corner of Wall and Broad Street in downtown Manhattan, just outside the banking firm. J.P. Morgan   Co. The blast would ultimately kill 39 people- most of them the clerks and messengers and secretaries who served the financial institutionsand cause damage in the millions of dollars. To witnesses, the scale of the damage was unimaginable. Glass flew everywhere, including into the Morgan building, where several of the banks partners were injured (Morgan himself was traveling in Europe that day.) The attack was made more lethal by the cast iron slugs packed in with the dynamite. Investigations began immediately, with several theories about who might have committed the attack discarded along the way. Thomas Lamont, a Morgan bank principal, first accused Bolsheviks of the attack. Bolsheviks was for many a catch-all term that meant radicals, whether anarchists, communists or socialists. The day after the attack, a message was found in a mailbox a block from the attack, which said: Remember. We will not tolerate any longer. Free the political prisoners or it will be death for all of you. American Anarchist Fighters! Some have theorized that this note indicated that the attack was revenge for the murder indictment, several days earlier, of anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Finally, it was concluded that either Anarchists or communists were responsible. However, those responsible for the attack were never located, and suspicions about the object of the attack were inconclusive. From Wall Street to the World Trade Center: The first act of terrorism aimed at the heart of the nations financial institutions inevitably draws comparison to the second, on September 11, 2001. Beverly Gage, author of the forthcoming book, The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in its First Age of Terror, has made one such comparison: To New Yorkers and to Americans in 1920, the death toll from the blast seemed incomprehensible. The horrible slaughter and maiming of men and women, wrote the New York Call, was a calamity that almost stills the beating of the heart of the people. That those numbers now seem paltry statistics from a past when we counted civilian deaths in dozens instead of thousands underscores just how violently our own world changed last Tuesday. The destruction of the World Trade Center now stands alone in the annals of horror. But despite the difference in scale, the Wall Street explosion forced upon New York and the nation many of the same questions that we are confronting today: How should we respond to violence on this new scale? What is the proper balance between freedom and security? Who, exactly, is responsible for the destruction? There is another striking similarity. We may think that the defensive security crackdowns and resource mobilization following 9/11 are unprecedented, but a similiar mobilization occurred in 1920: Within days of the attack, there were calls on Congress and the Department of Justice to dramatically increase funding and legal mechanisms to counter the threat of Communists and Anarchists. According to the New York Times on September 19: It was said today at the Department of Justice that Attorney General Palmer would recommend in his annual report to Congress that drastic laws for dealing with anarchists and other disturbing elements be enacted. At the same time he will ask for larger appropriations, which were denied in the past.

Good Persuasive Speech Topics to Get Ideas for Writing

Good Persuasive Speech Topics to Get Ideas for Writing Good Persuasive Speech Topics: Deliver a Brilliant Speech with Our Help 19 June, 2019 in default category name If you have the task to deliver a persuasive speech, one of the essential constituents of your success is to find good persuasive speech topics. Writing a speech is similar to writing an essay but the difference lies in the fact that you will have to present this essay to a large audience. As such, the core aim of a speech is to convey a specific message or idea in the words that are clear to the target audience. It is critical to make the message clear so that the audience could well comprehend it. How to Make a Speech? One of the fundamentals of making a persuasive speech successful is to come up with a list of good persuasive speech topics and then choose one of them that you are most interested in. Keep in mind that the topic should be interesting not only to you but also appealing and clear to the audience. Actually, in persuasive speech, there is nothing worse than when your audience does not understand what you are talking about or when it is so hard to comprehend the topic that some essential parts are left out by your listeners. In such cases, you will not be able to convince your audience of anything. Just at the beginning of writing, you need to make sure that you have conducted enough research on the topic. As such, be sure to consult only the most credible and trustworthy sources. Explore the topic from different perspectives and make sure you get a full picture of the issue. At this point, make sure you have found expert opinion to rely on. When you gather ideas for persuasive speech, keep in mind that the topics are controversial and they do not have one clear standpoint. Different people will have different opinions on the topic but your task here is to present your standpoint in the most vivid perspective. If you want to know how to write a persuasive speech, make sure that you pay attention to your target audience. This is a factor that influences your style of writing as well as your vocabulary choice. You should also investigate the preferences, interests, and educational background of your target audience in order to compose your presentation in the most appealing and interesting way. As such, first and foremost, please explore what your target audience already knows about the subject you intend to present. Consequently, you will know what aspects of the topic to emphasize, what to pay attention to, what should be better explained, etc. In other words, you will have a clear picture what concerns to address in your speech. What to Consider When Choosing Good Persuasive Speech Topics: the topic should be well-known to you; the topic should be interesting to you; there should be ample information on the topic to conduct a research on; it should be a topical issue that people care about; it should be a controversial topic. The Most Interesting Topic for a Persuasive Speech 1) Topics on Education: Would you vote for or against the abolishment of Greek life in college? Should it be allowed for high school students to leave the territory of college during the lunch break? How can schools tackle issues with bullying? Do you agree that cursive handwriting should be still taught in schools and other educational establishments? Should volunteering be an obligatory requirement for students to get enrolled in higher educational establishments? 2) Topics on Ethics: Should prisoners be granted the right to vote in elections? Do you agree that assault weapons should be claimed illegal? Should guns be banned on campus? Is it better for a couple to live together before marriage or wait? Should transgender serve in the army? 3) Topics on Governmental Issues: Who can be considered as the best American president in the history of the USA? Should voting during elections be made compulsory? Should the government cut the budget for the military? Should Scotland become independent from the UK? Whose face deserves to be on the new US currency? 4) Topics on Health: Should producers of soda, sugary drinks, and fast food pay more tax for the benefit of public health? Should free condoms be provided for students in high schools or colleges? Should the government legalize euthanasia in all countries? Should healthy people have an obligation to donate blood on a regular basis? Should the US health care be based on single payment? 5) Topics on Religion: Should different religious sects and organizations pay taxes? Should there be a legal right for some countries to give shelter to immigrants with specific religious beliefs? Should public prayer be an inseparable part of the studying process? Should women obtain the right to be priests? Should marriage be made ethically right and legal for priests? 6) Topics on Environment: Should genetically modified foods be allowed? / Be openly sold in supermarkets? What type of renewable energy has the most benefits? Should humans be legally cloned? Should they stop giving free plastic bags or even selling them in supermarkets and grocery stores? Should NASAs budget be increased? 7) Topics on Sports: Should sports teams in high schools and colleges receive more funding? Should boxing be banned from legal sports? Should children be allowed by their parents to play tackle football? Should cheerleading be accepted to the category of sports? Should all children be taught how to swim? 8) Topics on Technology: Should free access to electronic books replace libraries? Should net neutrality be favored or not? Should self-driven cars be made legal? Do social networking sites have more benefits or drawbacks: have they created a greater distance between people or, on the other hand, have helped to maintain connections between them? Should energy efficiency be implemented in all new buildings? Regardless of the topic of your paper, make sure you include only important and relevant information. You need to provide enough details in order to sound convincing. Make sure you make the discussion interesting both for you and for your target audience. Good luck with your persuasive speech.

War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

War - Essay Example Many thinkers and intellectuals, not to mention religious leaders, have lent their support to Just War and have moulded it over centuries with their contributions. According to Christian theory, resorting to war under any circumstances other than self defence is immoral, because war is never justifiable. At the same time, war is State's option and right of self-defence. "This is selective pacifism, for it does not deny the state the right of self-defense; it only denies to the Christian the right to participate. Likewise the just war theory gives no blanket endorsement of war, but demands painstaking discrimination between just and unjust causes," (Holmes, 19752). Just War is considered to be just, because it is interference on behalf of humanity, to establish peace, to repel an inhuman attack, to save people from its grips, to abolish anarchy. War for peace is also called Moral war because its intention is re-establishing morality and natural law. Just War tradition is of two fold: one is when to launch into a Just War and another, how to conduct the war without resorting into injustice. So it covers not only the motive, but also the process. The end result of winning or losing does not figure much in a Just War even though every war is fought for winning. As the means of winning the war has to be just and beyond reproach, the result of the war takes a secondary place. As morality, ethics and justice should support the origin of such a war and shape the conduction of it, its end result, even though important, cannot be achieved by mean methods. Cicero, Augustine, Aquinas, Grotius and many more philosophers stood by Just War. This includes de mands like a competent authority to declare the war, and there should be all probability of success, amongst other just causes. St. Augustine categorised them as follows: "1. Defending against an external attack; 2. Recapturing things taken; 3. Punishing people who have done wrong." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_war Just War should be conducted as an act of discrimination where only the guilty party should be punished and not the civilians and non-offenders. And this means biological weapons, weapons of mass destruction and nuclear weapons of any kind are ruled out. Another principle is that it should be governed by proportionality, and this means, the use of force should be proportional to the offence committed and not beyond that. Civilian deaths, attacks on helpless refugees, mass killings, and indiscriminate persecution are ruled out. Also it demands minimum force. Excessive killings, torture, destruction, upheaval, exodus, genocide, target killings of particular groups due to enmity are not allowed. Just wars demand just cause, just intent and war should be the last resort after exhausting all other means of achieving peace. There should be a lawful declaration of war and during war, non-combatant groups like medical services, ambassadors, journalists, individuals providing service like Red Cross, and organisations that provide relief to refugees and dislocated people should be spared of all

Ad Appeal Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ad Appeal Analysis - Essay Example In this advertisement, Guess uses the appeal to sex because they want to create an impression that wearing their jeans is sexy. This appeal is also selected for this advertisement to give a clear idea their target markets are the adults. Wearing Guess can also be a symbol of sexy lifestyle. Guess makes jeans for male and female adults who want to feel sexy while wearing this brand of jeans. I think using this appeal can be effective only to those people who want to have sexy image. It can also be effective because it catches the attention of men and women. However, there are also some rational ones who might not find this advertisement convincing at all because the only benefit that they can see is the feeling of sexiness.Appeal to fear is commonly used by marketers in advertisements on health, hygiene, and home security. Usually, it communicates its message indirectly. Just like the advertisement below, it is about taking care of one's heart. It doesn't show the audience what really is happening with their hearts. Instead, it used a scary scene and a line that would make one think. By looking at the picture, I would say that the ad's target markets are those people busy with their work or others who are busy with satisfying their lifestyle that they forget to have their heart checked-up. Appeal to fear is used in this kind of ad because people are afraid to die. Since it is about health, this appeal could make its target segment act immediately. I think the use of appeal to fear is the most effective when it comes to this kind of messages. Heart problems are serious matters that are commonly taken for granted. This kind of ad will serve as a wake up call to the target market. Top of Form Humor Pepsi always comes up with bright ideas on their advertisement. The image below is a very humorous advertisement of Pepsi. It shows that even the straw chooses what soda to sip. Pepsi uses the humor appeal to make retention in consumers' minds. If the audience will see this kind of advertisement, they will take a moment to laugh or smile about it. It just means that it got their attention and it can easily be remembered. This advertisement does not show any particular target segment. I think this kind of appeal is not quite effective. It can be remembered by the consumers but it does not mean that they are convinced to buy this product. Rational The image below is an advertisement of L'oreal that uses rational appeal. If you can take a closer look at the picture, you can read at the right side the enumerated benefits of using this product. One cannot get the message of this advertisement by just looking at the picture. You should take time to read the texts included in the advertisement. Hair issue is quite scientific. That is why rational appeal is used in this kind of advertisement. No one will believe the reliability of the product until they know the chemical ingredients of it. L'oreal used this kind of appeal to clearly tell the consumers what they can benefit from this product and to explain why this product will really work. The target segments of this advertisement are the women who want to have beautiful and healthy-looking hair. I think this advertisement is quite effective because it can tell the market what it really wants to say. It can also be effective in convincing people because of the benefits and scientif ic information laid out in the ad. However, some people are too lazy to read and will just look at the image. References Guess, Inc. (2008). Guess: Advertising. Retrieved November 24 2008 from http://www.guess.com/Advertising.aspx