Discussion On Classical Conditioning As An Explanation Of Learning Ess

Discussion On Classical Conditioning As An Explanation Of Learning We use the term classical conditioning to describe one type of associative learning in which there is no contingency between response and reinforcer. This situation resembles most closely the experiment from Pavlov in the 1920s, where he trained his dogs to associate a bell ring with a food-reward. In such experiments, the subject initially shows weak or no response to a conditioned stimulus (CS, e.g. the bell), but a measurable unconditioned response (UCR, e.g. saliva production) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, e.g. food). In the course of the training, the CS is repeatedly presented together with the UCS; eventually the subject forms an association between the US and the CS. In a subsequent test-phase, the subject will show the conditioned response (CR, e.g. saliva production) to the CS alone, if such an association has been established and memorized. Such Pavlovian conditioning is opposed to instrumental or operant, where producing a CR controls the UCS presentations. Therefore, classical conditioning involves learning by association - where you simply learn by associating two events that often occur together. Conditioning, in general occurs more rapidly when the conditioned stimulus in unfamiliar rather than familiar. High order conditioning is when a CS can be used to produce a response from another neutral stimulus (can evoke CS). There are a couple of different orders or levels. Taking Pavlovs dogs as an example, where light is paired with food. The food is a US since it produces a response without any prior learning. Then, when food is paired with a neutral stimulus (light) it becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - the dog begins to respond (salivate) to the light without the presentation of the food. One of the principles of classical conditioning is extinction. If a CS is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the CR will disappear. In Pavlovs case, if a dog learns to associate the sound of a bell with food and then the bell is rung repeatedly but no food appears, the dog will soon stop salivating to the bell. Another principle to classical conditioning is the spontaneous recovery. Supposing that a response is classically conditioned then extinguished. If a few hours or days later, the CS is presented again, the CR will probably reappear. As spontaneous recovery is a term used for this temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay. Thus, the elimination of a conditioned response usually requires more than one extinction lesson. Pavlovs dog who was conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell of one tone may well salivate to a similar sounding bell or a buzzer. Stimulus generalisation is the extension of the conditioned response from the original stimulus to a similar stimuli. The conditioned response to a similar stimulus is not as strong as the response to the original stimulus; the less similar the weaker the response. An animal or person can be taught to choose between stimuli, that is to discriminate stimuli. For example, is a dog is shown a red circle everytime he is fed, then he will salivate at the sight of the red circle alone. However, the dog will usually generalise this response to that they may respond to circles of other colours. If we only feed the dog when it sees a red circle but not an orange one, then it will soon learn to respond to red but not orange. The dog would have learnt to discriminate between the two colours. Relating this to humans, we discriminate consistently, relying on everyday life. Such as knowing someones voice. John Watson and Rayner conditioned a baby (Albert) to be afraid of a white rabbit by showing Albert the rabbit and then slamming two metal pipes together behind Albert's head. The pipes produced a very loud, sudden noise that frightened Albert and made him cry. Watson did this several times (multiple trials) until Albert was afraid of the rabbit. Previously he would pet the rabbit and play with it. After conditioning, the sight of the rabbit made Albert scream -- then what Watson found was that Albert began to show similar terrified behaviours to Watson's face. What Watson realized was that Albert was responding to the white beard

Funny Quotes of Wit and Wisdom

Funny Quotes of Wit and Wisdom These funny quotes also shed light on more than a little bit of the truth in the form of witty wisdom. Famous writers  and philosophers often express lifes irony wrapped up as comedy and humor helps to drive the point home. Wit and Wisdom Quotes If you read a lot of books, youre considered well-read. But if you watch a lot of TV, youre not considered well-viewed. -Lily TomlinAdvice is what we ask for when we already know the answer but wish we didnt. -Erica JongBefore you criticize someone, you should walk a mile in their shoes. That way when you criticize them, you are a mile away from them and you have their shoes. -Jack HandeyI know that there are people who do not love their fellow man, and I hate people like that! -Tom LehrerClothes make the man. Naked people have little or no influence on society. -Mark TwainA synonym is a word you use when you cant spell the word you first thought of. -Burt BacharachA signature always reveals a mans character- and sometimes even his name. -Evan EsarIf you cannot answer a mans argument, all it not lost; you can still call him vile names. -Elbert HubbardHe who believes that the past cannot be changed has not yet written his memoirs. -Torvald GahlinI guess a drag queen’s like an o il painting: You gotta stand back from it to get the full effect. -Harvey Fierstein Jealousy is all the fun you think they had. -Erica JongIf were not supposed to eat animals, how come theyre made out of meat? -Tom SnyderIf you dont know where you are going, you will wind up somewhere else! -Yogi BerraInstead of holding on to the Biblical view that we are made in the image of God, we come to realize that we are made in the image of the monkey. -Lin YutangIn spite of the cost of living, its still popular. -Kathleen NorrisI think of myself as an intelligent, sensitive human being with the soul of a clown, which always forces me to blow it at the most important moments. -Jim MorrisonPeople are too durable, thats their main trouble. They can do too much to themselves, they last too long. -Bertolt BrechtDon’t look back, something might be gaining on you. -Satchel PaigeIn my day, we couldn’t afford shoes, so we went barefoot. In the winter we had to wrap our feet with barbed wire for traction. -Bill Flavinï » ¿If the English language made any sense, lackada isical would have something to do with a shortage of flowers. -Doug Larson

The Brain All You AreIs Here Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Brain All You AreIs Here - Essay Example The hippocampus stores our long-term memories, and emotions are believed to be stored in the amygdala. The prefrontal cortex controls our judgments and helps moderate our behavior and rein in our impulses. It is also the region associated with future planning. As our judgment power has not reached maturity throughout puberty and in our early adulthood, we do not know how to control our impulses, therefore, our decision making is quite faulty, based on bad judgment. Talent and creativity also depend on our brain’s activity. The frontal lobe gives us the ability or talent, the temporal lobes and limbic system give us determination and incentive to express it. If the latter part of our brain is impaired, the former is bound to be affected adversely. Temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with symptoms of manic depression and mania. A study done on Buddhist monks showed that meditation can help alter our brain activity by causing more activity to occur in the left prefrontal cortex. The study also showed that meditating subjects showed a better immune response to flu shots than others. The brain continues to adapt and change throughout our adulthood. The brain has been shown to adapt to injury, molding itself to compensate for the damaged area of the brain. The hippocampus and grey matter have been also been found to grow and increase in size in response to our activities. Basic emotions can be recognized by the brain regardless of cultural differences, as was shown by a study done by Paul Ekman (in Shreeve 2005). The amygdala in our brain receives the sensory responses from environments that trigger fear responses and reaction to dangers, which, in turn, processes the stimuli, setting the less urgent information aside. Sometimes the basic emotional responses are based on our â€Å"nurture†, these can be unlearned; however, responses like turning our heads suddenly when we feel something moving on our side,

Leadership in the United States Army Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership in the United States Army - Assignment Example This principle of leadership is developed by the use of leadership traits, for example as an army leader in the United States, one must know the strength and weakness which one possesses. Experience and knowledge must be considered since one is going to work with groups and one must know the best way to deal with any given situation. Before one can lead, one must be able to do the job of military and again demonstrate the ability to accomplish the mission and demonstrate competence in any mission that is given to him or her. In the United States as an army leader, one must seek well rounded military education or even carry research so as to be technically and tactically proficient (Howell, 2012). Again one must seek guidance from capable leaders who have been in a position to lead and associating with other units of security and knowing their tactics so as to improve leadership skills. As an army leader who has undergone promotion by ranks, one must set the standards by personal example. All the military men who are under the leadership must do what is said and not as what one wants. The appearance, attitude, physical fitness and personal example are the key areas that those who are under the leaders look and therefore as a leader one must observe them properly. This principle is commonly used where a command is to be dictated for example in the case of United States army where the commander must command and communicate in a clear and concise manner (Johnson, 2009). Supervision must be highly looked upon and certainly made that the mission is understood by everyone in the group and questions are given time to be clarified and advice given. As an army commander in United States teamwork always leads to the achievement of the goals and thus being encouraged with perfection.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 6

Marketing - Essay Example The financial services sector would include banking, life assurance and pensions, investment management and asset servicing apart from general insurance, corporate finance, and broking services sectors. The factors that affect the financial services industry are the government regulation and deregulation from time to time, global competition, changing customer preference behavior. Availability of skilled staff is essential. Marketing financial services, irrespective whether it is face-to-face or through direct marketing channels, comes with a high cost. If human element is eliminated, the electronic set up costs is high. Marketing of services is a bigger challenge than marketing of products. Various reasons account for this and hence strategic marketing plans have to be devised for this. The most important differentiation is that products have well defined parameters and the customer can base his decision to some extent on that. Services on the other hand are intangible. In services marketing, it depends to a large extent on the customer. Two different people would react differently to a given situation. Marketing a product is on the premise that there is a market of millions. Hence, all related services like delivery, demonstration and after sales service can be built accordingly. As far as marketing financial services is concerned, each individual is a market in himself. Customer relationship management is essential here. Transactional analysis is important because it helps to derive customer knowledge to offer and improve the services. The service staff can also be trained based on this informati on. In marketing financial services, various factors have to be taken into account. Financial services come with a high element of risk attached to it. Marketing of products and general services require the four P’s (product, price, place and promotion) but in marketing of financial services two

Work is one of the main ways individuals participate

Work is one of the main ways individuals participate Work is one of the main ways individuals participate in society and the workplace will be one of the principal communities to which a worker belongs. Judicial recognition of this has been slow to emerge. Traditionally the courts have focused very strongly on the employee's financial interest in the relationship. By so doing they tended to ignore the fact that what workers gain from employment is not merely wages. For instance, 'A person's employment is an essential component of his or her sense of identity, self-worth and emotional well-being[1].† Therefore this assignment will consider whether or not the duty of trust and confidence should be implied into every employment contract on policy grounds. This will be achieved by a detailed discussion of the position of mutual trust and confidence, including its development into the employment relationship. It will consider in detail the judicial position of mutual trust and confidence, it will be argued that this has become synonymous with the duty of trust and confidence, and the rationale for its inclusion can be seen as that of public policy. It is well known that an employer is subject to certain implied duties. One of the most important of these duties is the implied term of mutual trust and confidence, which as Cabrelli[2] points out â€Å"which from the perspective of the obligations imposed upon the employer, has been expressed as a duty upon the employer not, without reasonable and proper cause, to act in such a way as would be calculated or likely to destroy or seriously damage the relationship of trust and confidence existing between the employer and its employees[3]† The breadth of the definition of the implied duty of trust and confidence has spawned much litigation in recent years. This implied term has also generated a great deal of academic attention, having been described as assuming a 'central position in the law of the contract of employment[4]', as being 'undoubtedly the most powerful engine of movement in the modern law of employment contracts[5]' and as forming the 'cornerstone of the legal construction of the contract of employment[6]'. There is a view that the implied term of trust and confidence may evolve to engulf the more 'traditional' implied terms and this has been well expressed in academic circles. For instance, Freedland points out that: â€Å"Almost any particular implied term of the contract of employment could in theory be placed under [the] umbrella [of the general obligation of mutual trust and confidence]; it remains to be seen how far this framework approach will lead to the swallowing up of existing, hitherto distinct, implied terms[7]†. Whilst there have been a number of notable recent common law developments, the most significant may well be the emergence of mutual trust and confidence. This is in part because '[T]he open-textured nature of the term makes it an ideal conduit through which the courts can channel their views as to how the employment relationship should operate[8].' For instance, Hepple suggests, with reference to the ECHR, that 'since the court must act compatibly with convention rights, the duty of trust and confidence also embodies a duty to respect the convention rights of an employee[9]'. Another reason is the wide-range of situations which have been held to fall within the ambit of the term[10]. Moreover, it may be that in time, 'the obligation will come to be seen as the core common law duty which dictates how employees should be treated during the course of the employment relationship[11]'. Trust and confidence' is used to refer to a type of fiduciary relationship the key element of which is the duty to act in the interest of another. In employment law, however, trust and confidence has a different meaning. It refers to an obligation implied into all employment contracts, which requires the parties not to conduct themselves in a way which is likely or calculated to destroy the relationship of trust and confidence between them. As an implied term it is subject to the usual rules of implication, including the possibility that the parties may be able to exclude its application[12]. Furthermore, the implied obligation of trust and confidence is mutual, in that both employer and employee must maintain a good working relationship. Fiduciary duties, on the other hand, are not mutual; they are always owed by one person to another. The notion of trust and confidence developed out of the well-established requirement of co-operation. Despite its name, this duty was traditionally imposed on employees only, most notably in the form of the obligations of obedience and faithful service[13]. In the mid to late 1970s the courts began to reverse the duty of co-operation and to impose new obligations on employers. At first this occurred in cases where there was a particular relationship between the parties[14] or where the conduct of the employer was particularly serious[15]. A general principle was formulated in Wood v Freeloader[16], where the chairman of the tribunal held that 'there is an implied duty of co-operation between employer and employee and in particular a duty implied by law that an employer will not do anything which would undermine the continuation of the confidential relationship between employer and employee'. The present formulation of the implied term was finally put forward in the case of Courtaulds Northern Textiles Ltd v Andrew[17], and was accepted by the Court of Appeal in Lewis v Motorworld Garages Ltd[18] and by the House of Lords in Malik v BCCI[19]. It has, therefore, been argued that the concept of trust and confidence was developed in employment law through the adaptation of an existing contractual concept, without reference to fiduciary duties. In recent years both courts and academics have recognised that employment is in many respects not comparable to a straightforward exchange-based contract, and that therefore a significant degree of co-operation is required of both parties. However, contract remains at the heart of the employment relationship, and in classic contract law, the parties are only obliged to co-operate to the extent that is necessary to make performance of the agreement possible[20]. In the context of employment this means that each party must have regard to the interests of the other, but, as Elias J rightly emphasised in Fishel, they need not put those interests ahead of their own. In his paper 'Beyond Exchange: The New Contract of Employment[21]' Brodie raises the question as to 'whether the law of the employment contract as a whole will continue to evolve so that the contract could be categorised as one of good faith. To put it another way, will the contract become one of good faith rather than merely a contract which contains elements of good faith'. This recognition of the implied term's potential for further development is to be welcomed. Linda Clarke has also formulated an argument for a changed perception of the employment relationship, on the basis of the implied term: 'by recognising the employment relationship as a fiduciary one, it will be easier to argue for the extension of the implied term of mutual trust and confidence to cover positive duties to give employees information'. It is certainly true that the employee in University of Nottingham v Eyett[22] would have been better off, had his employer been under a duty to volunteer information. However, this result can be achieved without turning employment into a fiduciary relationship. There is no reason why the implied obligation to maintain trust and confidence should not be used to impose positive duties on both employers and employees. If used to its full potential, it can provide an adequate degree of employee protection. Regarding employment as fiduciary in nature would, instead of advancing employee rights, carry serious negative connotations f or employee autonomy, by exposing employees to a corresponding duty to provide information. The case of Visa International Service Association v Paul[23] is a case which is worthy of consideration here. In this case it was held that an employer breached the implied duty of trust and confidence where they failed to inform an employee of the emergence of a post for which she considered herself suitable. Indeed, it provides support for the emergence of an overarching and distinct concept of trust and confidence since it suggests that an employee can be successful if they raise a claim for recovery of economic loss for a failure of the employer to inform based on a repudiatory breach of the duty of trust and confidence[24]. One view of the result in Visa International is that it conceptualises the duty of trust and confidence as an overarching premise distinct from the other 'traditional' implied duties. An important issue which the courts and tribunals have had to consider is the import of an express term in a contract of employment which is, on the face of it, incompatible with an implied term. The question here is whether the latter is sufficient to disapply the former or vice versa-in other words, what happens in the case of a 'clash of contractual terms'? Johnstone is the most important case in this area and deals with this issue. In Johnstone, the written contract of employment stated that a junior doctor was under a duty to work 40 hours a week and that the employer had the discretion to compel the employee to work for a further 48 hours per week. What is noteworthy is that there was no express waiver of the implied duty to exercise reasonable care. Instead, the question was whether the express terms on working hours were disapplied by the implied duty to exercise reasonable care. In Johnstone[25], the judges in the Court of Appeal were divided on how to deal with the incompatibility issue. To summarise, in his dissenting judgement, Leggatt LJ held that an implied term could not supersede an express term. Conversely, Stuart-Smith LJ held that an express term could be disapplied by an implied term where the two conflicted and the implied term ought to prevail based on 'principle'. Browne-Wilkinson V-C held that the implied term must coexist with the express term without conflict. The 'Browne-Wilkinson' approach can be reformulated in two ways: First, as another way of saying that an implied term cannot supersede an express term; or, alternatively, as holding that the scope of the employer's implied duties required to be carved with reference to the express terms of the contract. The question is whether the analysis in Johnstone translates to the implied duty of trust and confidence. The answer would appear to be that the effect of the incompatibility problem is resolved in the same way, regardless of the type of implied duty. Second, and shifting the focus from the generic employment contract to the implied duty of trust and confidence itself, the courts have indicated obiter that they will uphold exercises in contracting out of the implied duty. In Malik, Lord Steyn stated that the implied term of mutual trust and confidence operated as a default rule, and that the parties were free to exclude it or modify it[26]. This analysis is entirely consistent with the decision of the House of Lords in Johnson v Unisys Ltd[27]. Of course, there are limits to the doctrine of contracting out. For example, the argument in Horkulak v Cantor Fitzgerald International[28] that the size of an employee's remuneration and benefits package written into their contract of em ployment justified the disapplication of the duty of trust and confidence was not upheld. However, what we do have is an indication by the House of Lords that the implied duty is a default rule and as such susceptible to exclusion, modification or limitation. For this reason, the writer would submit that based on the conceptual underpinning of UCTA and the dicta of Lord Steyn in the House of Lords on a balanced view, contracting out of the implied duty of trust and confidence is possible. There is a view that the mutual duty of trust and confidence is unavailable in a positive sense to compel the employer to take action or enjoin conduct. Instead, it is said that its main purpose is to prohibit conduct damaging to the employment relationship. The argument holds that one means of distinguishing between the two implied duties is by invoking the positive/negative dichotomy. However, it is submitted that the assertion that the duty of trust and confidence only applies in a negative context, i.e. to hold that the conduct of the employer amounted to a repudiatory breach of contract is incorrect. There are many cases which demonstrate that omissions by an employer will also be sufficient to amount to a repudiatory breach of the duty of trust and confidence. For example, in Reed v Stedman[29], the employer's failure to investigate an employee's complaints (to colleagues) of sexual harassment was enough to justify a finding of breach of trust and confidence. On the basis of the above cases[30], it would appear that the positive/negative conduct dichotomy cannot be used as a means of denying evidence for the evolution of an abstractual, all-embracing concept of mutual trust and confidence which is equivalent to the sum of its parts. An analysis of the law in this area and of academic opinion, demonstrates quite clearly the need for the duty of trust and confidence, it is difficult to see how an employment contract can succeed without such an implicit duty. This is a basic duty which in its simplest form requires the employer to respect the worker and for the worker to respect his employee, it is difficult to see how an employment relationship could be successful without this basic requirement, despite judicial opinion to the contrary. Therefore it must be concluded, that currently all successful employment relationships require this basic duty to succeed, and in response to the question posed public policy does require that such a duty be imposed into every successful employment contract. This would not only regulate the employment relationship but it would ensure that it was a happy and successful relationship, one that benefited society. Bibliography Cases Croft v Consignia plc [2002] IRLR 851 Courtaulds Northern Textiles Ltd v Andrew [1979] IRLR 84 Fyfe McGrouther v Byrne [1977] IRLR 29 Isle of Wight Tourist Board v Coombes [1976] IRLR 413 Johnson v Unisys Limited [2001] IRLR 279 Johnstone v Bloomsbury Area Health Authority [1991] IRLR 118 Lewis v Motorworld Garages Ltd [1984] IRLR 465 Malik v BCCI [1997] IRLR 462 Nottingham v Eyett [1999] IRLR 87 Re Public Service Employee Relations Act [1987] 1 SCR Reed v Stedman [1999] IRLR 299 TSB Bank v Harris [2000] IRLR 157 Visa International Service Association v Paul [2004] IRLR 42 Wood v Freeloader [1977] IRLR 455 Waltons v Morse Dorrington [1997] IRLR 488 Journal Articles Brodie D, (1998) â€Å"Beyond Exchange: The New Contract of Employment† 27 Industrial Law Journal 79 Burrows,(1968) â€Å"Contractual Co-operation and the Implied Term† 31 Modern Law Review 390 Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal 121 Collins H,(2003)†Employment Law†, Oxford: Oxford University Press Collins H,(2003)†Employment Law†, Oxford: Oxford University Press Books Bowers J Honeyball S, (2002) â€Å"Bowers and Honeyball Textbook on L Labour Law†, Oxford University Press Cabrelli D, (2005) â€Å"The Implied Term of Mutual Trust and Confidence: An Emerging Overarching Principle?† Industrial Law Journal 34 (284) Deakin s Morris G, (2003) â€Å"Labour Law†, Third Edition, Lexis Nexis Dudington J, (2003) â€Å"Employment Law†, Pearson Higher Education Freedland M,(2003) â€Å"The Personal Employment Contract† Oxford: Oxford University Press Lewis D Sargeant M, (2005) â€Å"Employment Law† , Pearson Higher Education Press Willey B, (2003) â€Å"Employment Law in Context†, Pearson Professional Education 1 Footnotes [1] Re Public Service Employee Relations Act [1987] 1 SCR 313 at 368, per Dickson CJ J [2] Cabrelli D, (2005) â€Å"The Implied Term of Mutual Trust and Confidence: An Emerging Overarching Principle?† Industrial Law Journal 34 (284) [3] Malik v BCCI [1998] AC 20, 35 per Lord Nicholls and 45 per Lord Steyn adopting the wording of Browne-Wilkinson J in Woods v WM Car Services (Peterborough) Ltd [1981] ICR 666, 670 [4] Brodie D,(2001) â€Å"Mutual Trust and the Values of the Employment Contract†30 Industrial Law Journal 84 [5] Freedland M,(2003) â€Å"The Personal Employment Contract† Oxford: Oxford University Press [6]Collins H,(2003)†Employment Law†, Oxford: Oxford University Press, [7] Freedland M,(2003) â€Å"The Personal Employment Contract† Oxford: Oxford University Press at page 159 [8] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal 121 at 126 [9] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal [10] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal [11] Brodie D,(1996) 'The Heart of the Matter: Mutual Trust and Confidence' 25 Industrial Law Journal [12] See Malik v BCCI [1997] IRLR 462; Johnstone v Bloomsbury Area Health Authority [1991] IRLR 118 [13] see, for example, Secretary of State for Employment v Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen (No 2) [1972] 2 QB 455 [14] Isle of Wight Tourist Board v Coombes [1976] IRLR 413 [15] Fyfe McGrouther v Byrne [1977] IRLR 29 [16] [1977] IRLR 455 [17] [1979] IRLR 84 [18] [1984] IRLR 465 [19] [1997] IRLR 462 [20] Burrows,(1968) â€Å"Contractual Co-operation and the Implied Term† 31 Modern Law Review 390 [21] Brodie D, (1998) â€Å"Beyond Exchange: The New Contract of Employment† 27 Industrial Law Journal 79 [22] [1999] IRLR 87 [23] [2004] IRLR 42 [24] Cabrelli D, (2005) â€Å"The Implied Term of Mutual Trust and Confidence: An Emerging Overarching Principle?† Industrial Law Journal 34 (284) [25] Johnson v Unisys Limited [2001] IRLR 279 [26] Malik v BCCI [1998] AC 20 [27]Johnson v Unisys Limited [2001] IRLR 279 [28] [2003] IRLR 756 [29] [1999] IRLR 299 [30] There are other cases where the failure of the employer to take positive action was held to amount to a breach of trust and confidence, see e.g. TSB Bank v Harris [2000] IRLR 157 and Waltons v Morse Dorrington [1997] IRLR 488. See also Lindsay P in Croft v Consignia plc [2002] IRLR 851, 859

The Battle of Vicksburg :: American America History

The Battle of Vicksburg The Civil War split our nation, Americans fighting Americans, brother against brother. The war lasted four long years, a key battle fought westward was the turning point in the war: the Battle of Vicksburg. Between Cairo, Illinois, and the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi River twists and winds for nearly 1,000 miles. Commonly referred to as 'the trunk of the American tree'. The river was vital to both the American Government and to the Confederate forces in the west. The city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, 250 feet high, overlooks the Mississippi River on the Louisiana-Mississippi state border. Confederate forces mounted artillery batteries ready to challenge the passage of Union ships. Receiving control of Vicksburg and the Mississippi River was a huge benefit in the war. Due to the Geographic location made it ideal for defense. Before the outbreak of the Civil War, Vicksburg, Mississippi had become one of the most prosperous and sophisticated towns on the old southern frontier. The city was a booming center of trade, its wharves crowded with boats carrying all manner of goods and commodities. It boasted a municipal orchestra, a Shakespeare repertory company, and an imposing courthouse in the Greek revival style. To its proud citizens, Vicksburg was the "Queen City of the Bluff" and a center, as one of them wrote, of "culture, education and luxury." All this was to change with coming of the war. By early 1862 the peaceful town had become one of the most strategically important spots in the entire Confederacy- and would soon be one of the most bitterly fought over. From the beginning of the war in 1861, to protect their most prized possession, the Confederacy put up fortifications at strategic points along the river. Federal forces eventually captured post after post. After fighting their way southward from Illinois and northward from the Gulf of Mexico. Until by late summer of 1862, only Vicksburg and Port Hudson appeared to be major constraints to the Union. Of the two posts, Vicksburg was by far the strongest and most important. Setting high over looking a bend in the river, protected by artillery and dangerous swamps. So far the city had defied Union efforts to force it into submission. In order to protect the Mississippi Valley, Confederates established a line of defense, which ran from Columbus, Kentucky, overlooking the Mississippi River trough Bowling Green to Cumberland Gap where the bright flank was secure on the mountains.